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The United States can’t take meaningful steps toward fighting climate change without finding commercially viable renewable transportation fuels. We know that ethanol derived from corn isn’t the answer, but what is the best alter… More >>

Today we are in the era of globalisation. Multinational organisations worldwide have adopted globalisation as their first strategic choice. Advancement in technology has facilitated globalisation too.   There has been a marked improvement particularly in the area of maintenance, storage, availability and transfer of data. The world has literally shrunk to become a “global village”.

Banks have transformed themselves and are offering services through internet.  From computerization to networking to ATMs and now E-Banking, banks have moved up the value chain.  Internet banking refers to the use of internet as a remote delivery channel for banking services.   It means any user with a personal computer and a browser can get connected to his bank website to perform any of the virtual banking functions.    The number of visits to the bank can be minimized effectively by operating from the internet account. Thus the number of contacts required to perform a transaction and solve a problem has been reduced through online banking.  The usual branches of banks have culminated into PC networks, whereby the consumer can draw all the benefits and services of the bank at a single click of the mouse. Once the branch offices of bank are interconnected through terrestrial or satellite links, there would be no physical identity for any branch. It would a borderless entity permitting anytime, anywhere and anyhow banking.  A customer can log on banks website and access his account.

Evolution of technology in Indian banking

The technological development4 in banking can be traced as follows:-

1960 - Mechanised banking introduced.
1970 – Introduction of computer based banking industry.
1980 – Introduction of computer-linked communication based banking.

Advent of computer technology has created a major impact on working of banks.  The computerization and subsequent development in history of Indian banks can be traced back to 1966 when Indian Bankers Association (IBA) along with exchange banks associationsigned first wage settlement with the unions, which accounted for the use of IBM or ICT accounting machines for inter-branch reconciliation etc.   A committee on computerization and mechanisation was appointed by RBI in 1983 under chairmanship of Dr. C. Rangrajan recommended that computerization and installation of Advanced Ledger Posting Machines (ALPM) at branch, regional and head offices of banks will bring around a new era in banking.  Narsimhan Committee in 1991 paved way for reform phase in banking.  Saraf Committee was constituted by RBI in 1994 that recommended the use of Electronic Fund Transfer System (EFT), introduction of electronic clearing services and extension of Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) beyond metropolitan cities and branches.

The rate of adoption of IT by foreign and private sector bank in the country has been significant over the last five years, which can be attributed to fierce competition and the internet phenomena worldwide.  The arrival of private and multinational banks with their superior state of the art technology based services pushed the Indian banks to follow the suit by going in for the latest technologies to meet the threat of competitors and retain their customer base. “The last four years have seen dramatic changes, making customers’ convenience critical aspect of banking”.  Indian metros are surging ahead in online banking usage.  Today the delivery channel of banks include direct dial up connections, private networks, public networks etc. and the devices include telephone, Personal Computers including Automated Teller Machines, etc.

Impact of on line banking

It has been observed that customers who adopt online banking are typically more profitable to the bank, stay with the bank longer and use more products strengthening the bank customer relationship.  Information Technology and Internet banking has bridged the information gap, which was interestingly because of human involvement.  Banks can make the information of products and services available on their site, which is, an advantageous proposition.

Prospective customer can gather all the information from the website and thus if he comes to the branch with queries it will be very specific and will take less time of employee.  Customer can visit these websites and can compare the services offered by a bank with that of another.  Customer can get all the information, by saving money and time.  The trend thus emerging out is that of virtual corporate system where the human role is minimized to maximum effect.

The overall banking size and structure has increased considerably.  It can also be accredited to the current market characteristics.  More private players and multinational banks are establishing their base in India.  Earlier nationalized bank dominated the scenario.  Now after deregulation private banks have emerged as a powerful force.  As a result, there is a fierce competition among these players for capturing the savings of individuals and current accounts of organisations.  This has been spearheaded by the liberalization in the insurance industry.  Insurance industry is giving fierce competition through their offerings on various policies.  This sudden surge has necessitated the use of technology in offering better services competitively.  Most of the banks have coupled IT with their offering to add value.

Several banks have been positioning themselves as a one-stop shop financial service provider with a fairly exhaustive range of products, including deposit products, loans, credit cards, debit cards, depository (custody services), investment advice, bill payments and various transactional services.  These apart, banks have also been entering into the business of selling third-party products such as mutual funds and insurance to the retail customers.  To provide their customers greater flexibility and convenience as well as to reduce servicing costs, banks have been investing to computerize their branches and in new delivery channels such as ATMs, phone banking, internet banking and mobile banking.

Internet banking in India

The Reserve Bank of India constituted a working group on Internet Banking. The group       divided the internet banking products in India into 3 types based on the levels of access granted. They are:

Information Only System General Purpose information like interest rates, branch location, bank products and their features, loan and deposit calculations are provided in the banks website. There exist facilities for downloading various types of application forms. The communication is normally done through e-mail. There is no interaction between the customer and bank’s application system. No identification of the customer is done. In this system, there is no possibility of any unauthorized person getting into production systems of the bank through internet. 
Electronic Information Transfer System The system provides customer- specific information in the form of account balances, transaction details, and statement of accounts. The information is still largely of the ‘read only’ format. Identification and authentication of the customer is through password. The information is fetched from the bank’s application system either in batch mode or off-line. The application systems cannot directly access through the internet. 
Fully Electronic Transactional System This system allows bi-directional capabilities. Transactions can be submitted by the customer for online update. This system requires high degree of security and control. In this environment, web server and application systems are linked over secure infrastructure. It comprises technology covering computerization, networking and security, inter-bank payment gateway and legal infrastructure.

Internet banking can be categorized in following stages:
Information Kiosks: traditional information on banking products and services are available on the website of the bank.
Basic I-Banking:  Here, bank sets up infrastructure for internet banking and for accessing basic services like opening an account, paying utility bills and checking the balance.
Virtual medium: Here internet is taken as an official medium for financial transactions.  Buying and selling activities can be undertaken through banks payment gateway technology. Today most of the banks are having their own functional websites through which banks are serving customers.

Unique features of internet banking

Online banking solutions have many features and capabilities in common, but traditionally also have some that are application specific.

Support account aggregation to monitor accounts in one place
Make fund transfers between own accounts and third party accounts
Interbank fund transfer
Maintenance of future fund transfers
Maintenance of beneficiaries
Make Payment on bills to service providers
Maintenance of registered bill payment
Manage our investments with placement in our General Investment Account
Withdrawals with details of investment history
Initiate standing instructions and delete them Manage financing accounts payment facility financing details
Manage Card account
Manage cheques status inquiry
Stop cheque facility
Release of stop cheque facility
Cheque book request
Cheque return inquiry

Cheque deposit inquiry
Current Account statement request
Profit rates inquiry
FOREX rates inquiry
Update profile
Change account correspondence address
Change  password
Send message to Internet Banking customer care
Delete ATM card in cases of loss or authorized usage.

Services through e-banking

Bill payment service It facilitates payment of electricity and telephone bills, mobile phone, credit card and insurance premium bills as each bank has tie-ups with various utility companies, service providers and insurance companies, across the country. To pay our bills, all we need to do is complete a simple one-time registration for each biller. We can also set up standing instructions online to pay our recurring bills, automatically. The bank does not charge customers for online bill payment.
Fund transfer We can transfer any amount from one account to another of the same or any another bank. Once we login to your account, we need to mention the payees’ account number, his bank and the branch. The transfer will take place in a day or so, whereas in a traditional method, it takes about three working days. ICICI Bank says that online bill payment service and fund transfer facility have been their most popular online services.
Credit card customers With Internet banking, customers can not only pay their credit card bills online but also get a loan on their cards. If we lose our credit card, we can report lost card online. 
Railway pass Indian Railways has tied up with ICICI bank and we can now make our railway pass for local trains online. The pass will be delivered to us at our doorstep. But the facility is limited to Mumbai, Thane, Nasik, Surat and Pune.

Investing through Internet banking We can now open an FD online through funds transfer. Now investors with interlinked demat account and bank account can easily trade in the stock market and the amount will be automatically debited from their respective bank accounts and the shares will be credited in their demat account. Moreover, some banks even give us the facility to purchase mutual funds directly from the online banking system.

Recharging prepaid phone Now we just top-up our prepaid mobile cards by logging in to Internet banking. By just selecting our operator’s name, entering our mobile number and the amount for recharge, our phone is again back in action within few minutes.
Shopping With a range of all kind of products, we can shop online and the payment is also made conveniently through our account. We can also buy railway and air tickets through Internet banking.

Advantages of online banking

The advantages of online banking can be encapsulated as: 
– Convenient
-Unaffected by boundation of operational timings.

-No geographical barriers

- Services can be offered at very low cost

-cost per transaction through internet banking is very low.

Challenges in internet banking

Internet banking in India is in its earliest stage of development.  Most of them are offering basic services only.  The deregulation of banking industry coupled with the emergence of new banking technologies is enabling new competitors to enter the financial services market quickly and efficiently.
Indian internet banking faces following challenges:

Proper understanding of the customer For this a massive survey must be undertaken may be in collaboration with other banks.
Need for transparency in offering services as customers awareness has grown considerably.
Breach of privacy online transactions enter straightaway into the records revealing the identity of customer.  Thus black money cannot be transferred with ease.
Bandwidth Though companies claim to offer good speed and high bandwidth, still there are problems in accessing high speed on net.  Internet banking can go high only on the wings of proper infrastructure comprising telecommunications and bandwidth.
Computer literacy in India is still very low and that is a barrier in fast acceptance of Internet banking.
The mindset of the Indian customer needs to be changed.
Cracking login and passwords is a common way of fiddling with the data.
Denial of services Directing millions of queries can block computer network.
Data Diddling Data can be modified in an unauthorized manner.  A customer can therefore receive bills of higher amounts than the actual transactions
Session hijacking Hijackers become unauthorized intermediaries between the server and the client; they can then hijack the data and prevent it from reaching the destination. Most online transactions involve disclosing up of the credit or debit card number.  Hackers can very easily track down these numbers.  They can thus enjoy the full benefits of the card without being an actual cardholder.                                                                                                                                           RBI has issued some guidelines on Internet banking for safety of customers and banks. Some of which are:
Application for account opening can be accepted over Internet but account should be opened only after proper introduction and physical verification of the customer.
Security procedure adopted by bank, for authenticating user, must be recognized by law as a substitute for signature, from a legal perspective.                                                                                                                               The secrecy and confidentiality of customers account has to be maintained.
Consumer Protection Act is applicable to banking services as well.

Information Technology Act 2000 has given legal recognition to creation, transmission and retention of an electronic (magnetic) data to be treated as evidence in court, except in those areas which continue to be governed by the provisions of Negotiable Instruments Act 1881.

Security precautions

Customers should never share personal information like PIN numbers, passwords etc with anyone, including employees of the bank. It is important that documents that contain confidential information are safeguarded. PIN or password mailers should not be stored, the PIN and/or passwords should be changed immediately and memorised before destroying the mailers.
Customers are advised not to provide sensitive account-related information over unsecured e-mails or over the phone. Take simple precautions like changing the ATM PIN and online login and transaction passwords on a regular basis. Also ensure that the logged in session is properly .Internet banking is changing the banking industry and is having the major effects on banking relationships out.

Security token devices

Protection through single password authentication, as is the case in most secure Internet shopping sites, is not considered secure enough for personal online banking applications in some countries. Basically there exist two different security methods for online banking.

The PIN/TAN system, the PIN represents a password which is used for the login and TAN represents one-time passwords to authenticate transactions. TANs can be distributed in different ways; the most popular one is to send a list of TANs to the online banking user by postal letter. The most secure way of using TANs is to generate them by need using a security token. These token generated TANs depend on the time and a unique secret, stored in the security token  which is called two-factor authentication or 2FA.Usually online banking with PIN/TAN is done via a web browser using SSL secured connections, so that there is no additional encryption needed. Signature based online banking where all transactions are signed and encrypted digitally. The Keys for the signature generation and encryption can be stored on smartcards or any memory medium, depending on the concrete implementation.

Attacks

Most of the attacks on online banking used today are based on deceiving the user to steal login data and valid TANs. Two well known examples for those attacks are phishing and pharming. Cross-site scripting and keylogger/Trojan horses can also be used to steal login information.

A method to attack signature based online banking methods is to manipulate the used software in a way, that correct transactions are shown on the screen and faked transactions are signed in the background.

Countermeasures

There exist several countermeasures which try to avoid attacks. Digital certificates are used against phishing and pharming, the use of class-3 card readers is a measure to avoid manipulation of transactions by the software in signature based online banking variants. To protect their systems against Trojan horses, users should use virus scanners and be careful with downloaded software or e-mail attachments.’

Conclusion

Internet banking is changing the banking industry and is having the major effects on banking relationships.  The net banking, thus, “now is more of a norm rather than an exception in many developed countries” due to the fact that it is the economical way of providing banking services.  Banking is now no longer confined to the traditional brick and mortar branches.  There is need to scan and analyse the market and respond to the needs of customers and to generate awareness regarding advantages of internet banking. Providing internet banking is increasingly becoming a ‘need to have’ than a ‘nice to have’ services.

Global Biofuel Market Analysis
 
 The global biofuel industry has been witnessing sustainable growth and developments for the past few years in the backdrop of depleting fossil fuels and degradation of environmental conditions. Therefore, many economies have turned their attention towards biofuels. Many countries are supporting the biofuel industry in the form of subsidies and tax incentives which keep the biofuel producing companies profitable. Many governments have implemented mandatory biofuel blend with the conventional fuel to increase its demand. ( http://www.bharatbook.com/detail.asp?id=102089&rt=Global-Biofuel-Market-Analysis.html )
 
 According to our new research report “Global Biofuel Market Analysis”, the global production of ethanol and biodiesel is expected to grow at a CAGR of around 8% and around 15.5% respectively during 2010-2013. The prospective growth in ethanol and biodiesel production depends on several factors that have been thoroughly discussed in the report.
 
 We have also found that the American region, mainly the US, Brazil and Canada, has been driving the global ethanol industry. The region accounts for around 90% of the total global ethanol production. On the other hand, the EU is the leading biodiesel producer. It accounts for around 60% of the total global biodiesel production.
 
 We have also studied growth prospects of the biofuel industry in the developing countries. Asia Pacific has an enormous potential in the field of biofuel production due to cheap availability of feedstock. The countries covered in the Asia Pacific section include – Australia, Thailand, Japan, India, China and Indonesia. All the countries have shown great interest in raising the production of biofuels in order to use them as alternatives of conventional energy sources.
 
 ”Global Biofuel Market Analysis” provides an extensive research and rational analysis of the global biofuel industry and its different segments. It gives a deep insight into the regional trends prevailing across the globe. Analysis and statistics regarding the market size, growth, regional segmentation, and trends in technology developments have been thoroughly studied in the report to provide clients a comprehensive overview of the biofuel industry.
 
 In addition, the report contains information about government support, biofuel distribution issues and cost analysis to help clients formulate appropriate strategies for the expansion of business in untapped markets. The report also gives brief information about the second generation biofuels, which will raise the production capacity per acre land, along with their social and environmental benefits.
 
 To know more and to buy a copy of your report feel free to visit : http://www.bharatbook.com/detail.asp?id=102089&rt=Global-Biofuel-Market-Analysis.html               
 
 Related Reports :
 
 Next Generation Biofuels: Market drivers, growth opportunities and regulatory change
 http://www.bharatbook.com/detail.asp?id=130191&rt=Next-Generation-Biofuels-Market-drivers-growth-opportunities-and-regulatory-change.html
 
 Biofuels Markets and Technologies
 http://www.bharatbook.com/detail.asp?id=111411&rt=Biofuels-Markets-and-Technologies.html
 
 Or
 
 Contact us at :
 
 Bharat Book Bureau
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This report is the most comprehensive treatment of the biofuels market available. Worldwide data is provided on biorefineries, conversion and separation technologies, manufacturing, research and development, organic biofuels, consumption, capacity, components and competition.

This report delves into the global efforts to develop technologies that improve the refining processes associated with many different types of biofuels and its growing consumption among nations throughout the next few decades.

Biofuel is expected to become a major renewable resource to produce fuel, electricity, heat, and other sources of power. To compete with other energy types will require development and implementation of an enhanced biorefinery process that minimizes its impact on local environments. Developing sustainable fractionation and separation technologies will be a key factor for the success of refining biomasses into renewable energy.

Biorefinery technology differs from traditional oil based refinery technology because it will be mainly water-based. Today’s biofuels involve either ethanol or diesel, with the former accounting for roughly 90 percent of the market. Brazil, the United States, and China are the greatest producers. More than half of the world’s bioethanol is generated from sugar cane; the rest comes mainly from corn. Biodiesel is mostly derived from rapeseed and sunflower.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Executive Summary
Outlook for Biofuel Consumption
External Factors Affect Growth of Biofuels
Food Prices Fuel Biomass Debate
United States Remains Hotbed of Biomass Activity
Biofuel Technology Research
Global Market Values
Manufacturing, by Country, 2009 and 2014 (in $ millions)
Shipments of Organic Biomass Feedstocks
Imports of Organic Biomass
U.S. Shipments of Biomass Conversion Technology Components
U.S. Backs Biofuel Innovations
Federal Funding Fuels Innovation
Innovations in Biorefineries
Innovations in Biofuel Processing
Biofuel Energy Policy Fuels Debate
Biofuel’s Effect on Food Prices
Biofuels Lobbying Efforts
Global Policies toward Biofuels
Market Value Forecast Through 2014

Chapter 2: Introduction and Overview
Report Scope
Methodology
Terminology
Future Biomass Conversion Technologies
First- and Second-Generation Liquid Biofuels
Ethanol Production Processes
Biomass Feedstocks

Chapter 3: World Bioenergy Activities & Technologies
External Factors Affect Growth of Biofuels
Food Prices Fuel Biomass Debate
United States Remains Hotbed of Biomass Activity
Biofuel Technology Research
Reduction of Greenhouse Gases

Chapter 4: World Biomass Market Trends
Shipments of Organic Biomass Feedstocks
Manufacturing, 2004 and 2009 (in $ thousands)
Biodiesel Trade Market in Flux
Imports of Organic Biomass
U.S. Shipments of Biomass Conversion Technology Components
Imports of Technology Components
Biomass Conversion Technology Exports
Market Value Forecast Through 2014

Chapter 5: Manufacturer Profiles
Archer Daniels Midland (ADM)
Bunge
CHS
Royal Dutch Shell
Foster Wheeler
Wilmar
Tenaska

Chapter 6: Innovations in Biofuel Technology
U.S. Backs Biofuel Innovations
Diversity of Cellulosic Feedstocks
Federal Funding Fuels Innovation
DOE Funds Advanced Biofuels Projects
Innovations in Biorefineries
Whole Crop Biorefineries
Ligno Cellulosic Feedstock Biorefineries (LCFBR)
Green Biorefineries
Two Platform Concept Biorefinery (TPCBR)
Marine Biorefinery (MBR)
Thermo Chemical Biorefinery (TCBR)
Innovations in Biofuel Processing
Advances in Ethanol Separation Technologies
Germ and Fiber Separation
Enzymatic Dry Milling
Dry Fractionation
Ammonia Process in the Wet Mill
Continuous Membrane Reactor for Starch Hydrolysis
Alkali Wet Milling
High-Gravity Fermentation
Improved Yeast
Conversion of Pentose Sugars to Ethanol
Enzymes for Liquefaction and Saccharification
Enzymes to Reduce Sulfur Dioxide
Distillation Technology
Control Systems
Environmental Technologies
Biodiesel Derived From Tallow

Chapter 7: Consumers of Biofuels
Biofuel Energy Policy Fuels Debate
Feedstock Implications
Legislation Favors E85 Production
Biofuel’s Effect on Food Prices
Studies Point to Ethanol’s Effect on Food Prices
Biofuels Lobbying Efforts
Global Policies Toward Biofuels
European Union Changes Biofuel Composition
Japan Continues Import Strategy
India Ethanol Blends Fluctuate
China Steps Up Corn Ethanol Production

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Scientists have estimated that every day, an average person inhales about 20,000 liters of air.  Every time we breathe, we risk inhaling dangerous chemicals that have found their way into the air. Air pollution includes all contaminants found in the atmosphere.  These dangerous substances can be either in the form of gases or particles. Air pollution can be found both outdoors and indoors.  Pollutants can be trapped inside buildings, causing indoor pollution that lasts for a long time. The sources of air pollution are both natural and human-based.  As one might expect, humans have been producing increasing amounts of pollutants as time has progressed, and they now account for the majority of pollutants released into the air.

Air pollution has been a problem throughout history.  Even in Ancient Rome people complained about smoke put into the atmosphere. The effects of air pollution are diverse and numerous.  Air pollution can have serious consequences for the health of human beings, and also severely affects natural ecosystems. Because it is located in the atmosphere, air pollution is able to travel far off places easily.  As a result, air pollution is a global problem and has been the subject of both global cooperation and conflict. Some areas now suffer more than others from air pollution.  Cities with large numbers of automobiles or those that use great quantities of coal often suffer most severely from problems of air pollution.

 Ancient Greek and Roman thoughts began the environmental sciences.  Major philosophers advanced differing views that affected others and shield their views for years to come. The early Greeks searched for a reasonable understanding of nature.  The ideas they developed influenced Europe in the future. Thales of Miletus, the founder of the Ionian school, was the initiator of Greek philosophy on the environmental sciences.  The Ionian school hoped to discover the nature of the universe, and how it came about.  According to Thales, everything was composed of water and the combination of the sun and water was the source of life.

Empedocles (c.493-c.433 BC) argued that the universe was composed of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water, which combined in different ways and proportions to produce different results and products. In his Memorabilia, the Greek writer, Xenophon (c.428-c.354 BC) contends that the planet earth exists for people and the climate of the earth, and the living creatures on it, are for the benefit of humanity.  Xenophon says ‘The earth was created by a god for people.’ His work later influenced Christianity. In Rome, Cicero (106-43 BC) wrote that nature should be controlled by humans.  According to him the earth was designed for humanity, as was each different species. 

In respect of the theory of the four elements, the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) added a fifth one: the heavens.  After breaking with Plato (429-347 BC), Aristotle thoroughly investigated the natural world.  He thought that the earth could be divided into sections defined by the amount of heat each received, and that people could only live in the more inhabitable areas. Aristotle accepted the theory that underground wind caused volcanoes and earthquakes.  He understood the origins of rivers and believed in a pattern of rainfall. Teleology, which explained things in terms of their purpose, was a major part of Aristotle’s theory.  It caused him to heavily research reproduction. Aristotle’s Historian Animalium details over 500 species, examining common characteristics between the species. Throughout the ancient periods, interest in botany grew because of its relation to medicine.  Many philosophers advanced varying theories that would affect Europe in later years.

Today, there are a vast number of environmental problems, all with unique causes and consequences.  Some people have said that Christianity is one of the primary causes of the degradation of the environment. Lynn White has said that the modern destruction of the environment can be attributed to Christianity. According to White the Biblical belief that nature, seen as inferior to people, can be controlled by man, has brought a lack of respect for the sacredness of the environment. White would also argue that Christianity is greatly responsible for the advent of Western science and technology.  Modern technology has clearly been one of the main sources of environmental difficulties.

The Judeo-Christian notion of nature is that it is not sacred like God.  Man, however, is believed by this group to be made in God’s image, and can therefore shape nature as God would. There are some who would disagree with this application of Christianity.  Those who believe in “stewardship” would say that people must respect and not destroy nature, not overexploit natural resources, and allow other animals to live in nature as well. Many important theological thinkers would agree with this version of Christianity.  Calvin said that man is the steward of God’s earth, and has no right to exploit and destroy it.  Also, St. Thomas Aquinas said that man had some responsibility towards animals. Christianity also favors the environment in some respects.  To the benefit of the environment, the religion encourages caring for other people, including those of the future, and some level of respect for the environment.

There are many different chemical substances that contribute to air pollution.  These chemicals come from a variety of sources. Among the many types of air pollutants are nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, and organic compounds that can evaporate and enter the atmosphere. Air pollutants have sources that are both natural and human.  Now, humans contribute substantially more to the air pollution problem. Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of organic compounds, and natural radioactivity are all among the natural causes of air pollution.

Usually, natural air pollution does not occur in abundance in particular locations.  The pollution is spread around throughout the world, and as a result, poses many threats. Though some pollution comes from these natural sources, most pollution is the result of human activity.  The biggest causes are the use of fuels in power plants and automobiles that combust fuel.  Combined, these two sources are responsible for about 90% of all air pollution in the United States. Some cities suffer severely because of heavy industrial use of chemicals that cause air pollution.  Places like Mexico City and Sao Paulo have some of the most deadly pollution levels in the world.

Air pollution is responsible for major health effects.  Every year, the health of countless people is ruined or endangered by air pollution. Many different chemicals in the air affect the human body in negative and destructive ways.  Just how sick people will get depends on what chemicals they are exposed to, in what concentrations, and for how long. Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the US alone due to environmental pollution-related diseases could be over 50,000. Older people are highly vulnerable to diseases induced by air pollution.  Those with heart or lung disorders are under additional risk.  Children and infants are also at serious risk. Because people are exposed to so many potentially dangerous pollutants, it is often hard to know exactly which pollutants are responsible for causing sickness.  Also, because a mixture of different pollutants can intensify sickness, it is often difficult to isolate those pollutants that are at fault.

Many diseases could be caused by air pollution without their becoming apparent for a long time.  Diseases such as bronchitis, lung cancer, and heart disease may all eventually appear in people exposed to air pollution. Air pollutants such as ozone, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide also have harmful effects on vital systems.  They can kill plants and trees by destroying their leaves, and can kill animals, especially fish in highly polluted rivers. Air pollution has many disastrous effects that need to be checked and curbed prudently.  In order to accomplish this, scientists, environmentalists, and governments, are using or testing a variety of methods aimed at reducing pollution. There are two main types of pollution control. Input control involves preventing a problem before it occurs, or at least limiting the effects the process will produce. Five major input control methods exist. 

Output control, the opposite method, seeks to fix the problems caused by air pollution.  This usually means cleaning up an area that has been damaged by pollution. Input controls are usually more effective than output controls.  Output controls are also more expensive, making them less desirable to tax payers and polluting industries. Current air pollution control efforts are not all highly effective.  In wealthier countries, industries are often able to shift to methods that decrease air pollution.  In the United States, for example, air pollution control laws have been successful in stopping air pollution levels from rising.  However, in developing countries and even in countries where pollution is strictly regulated, much more needs to be done.

Over the past years, human energy consumption has risen dramatically.  The rise in use of energy resources has meant increasing costs and the depletion of non-renewable supplies.  These and other factors have led people to try to use energy in a more efficient manner. The First Law of Thermodynamics says that energy can be transferred between forms, but not created or destroyed.  The Second Law of Thermodynamics says that usage of heat to perform work inevitably causes some heat to be lost to the surrounding environment.  As a result, perfect efficiency in energy use is impossible.

For many things and devices that use energy, a maximum efficiency limit exists.  A four-cycle internal combustion engine can achieve at most 54% efficiency, while a diesel engine can reach 56%.  Steam engines only perform at 32% efficiency.  In reality, engines are considerably worse than this due to designs that prevent achievement of maximum efficiency. If one includes all devices that use energy, about 85% of energy in the US is lost due to inefficient usage. Many low-efficiency devices exist because when they were developed, energy costs were very low.  Only later, when energy costs rose, did it make sense to be more energy efficient.

Devices that increase efficiency often are priced higher than those that perform inefficiently.  However, because less energy is used and the devices often last longer (such as fluorescent light bulbs), the efficient devices are sometimes cheaper in the long run. Governments are trying to promote efficient energy use for the sake of our future and their future generations who may be deprived by us of chances to generate air pollutants.